1. MIDDLE AGES
Miniatures from the Cantigas de Santa Maria manuscript (13th c.)
1. INTRODUCTION
The Middle Ages is the period that runs from the 5th century to the 15th century (from the fall of the Roman Empire to the discovery of America in 1492). This period can be divided into:
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Early Middle Ages (5th – 11th century) associated with Romanesque art and monophonic music.
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High & Late Middle Ages (11th – 15th century) associated with Gothic art and polyphonic music.​​
The Christian Church dominated almost everything about life, including music.
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Characteristics
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Rhythm: Gregorian chant had no beat, but troubadour and polyphonic music had beat.
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Melody: modal, based on a system derived from the Greek modes.
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Texture: monophony that later evolved into polyphony.
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Harmony: polyphony was supported by the consonances of octave, fifth and fourth.
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Timbre: mainly vocal. Instruments were arranged in small groups of soloists.
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Dynamics: there were no changes in intensity.
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Musical notation: neumatic notation that later evolved into square notation.
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Composers
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France: Leonin, Perotin, Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut.
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Italy: Francesco Landini, Johannes de Garlandia.
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Germany: Hildegard von Bingen, Franco of Cologne.
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Spain: Alfonso X the Wise, Martín Codax de Vigo.
Hildegard von Bingen
Hildegard von Bingen - O Virtus Sapientiae
2. RELIGIOUS VOCAL MUSIC
Religious vocal music began as monophony and then evolved into polyphony. The Christian Church prohibited singing by women and the use of instruments, because this would distract the faithful in their worship.
Monophony
Gregorian chant: repertoire of music destined for the Christian liturgy, featured by a single melodic line (monophonic) without instrumental accompaniment (a cappella) and with free rhythm, determined by the accentuation of the text in Latin. Pope Gregory I the Great encouraged the organization and unification of the chants (hence the name "Gregorian").
Chants were originally passed through oral tradition, but they became so numerous that by the 8th century monks began to draw symbols (neumes) above or below the texts to help remember the melody. Neumatic notation evolved into square notation, achieving a more precise indication of pitch with reference lines (a four-line staff) and clefs.
Neumatic notation and square notation
Types of chants according to the manner of performance:
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Responsorial: alternation between a soloist and the choir.
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Antiphonal: alternation between two halves of the choir.
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Direct: no alternation.
Types of chants depending on the relation between text and music:
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Syllabic: each syllable is sung on one note.
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Neumatic: each syllable is sung on a neume (from 2 to 6 notes).
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Melismatic: each syllable is sung on a melisma (from 6 to over 60 notes).
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Syllabic
Neumatic
Melismatic
Polyphony
Primitive polyphony (9th – 12th centuries)
Polyphony (different melodies at the same time) emerged in Western music in the late 9th century, evolving through improvisation upon the foundation of Gregorian chant.
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Parallel organum: primitive polyphonic form with two melodies in parallel motion, meaning that both melodies move together while maintaining a constant interval between them.
- Vox principalis or cantus firmus is the original Gregorian melody (red notes).
- Vox organalis is the second melody added at a distance of an octave, fifth or fourth.
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​Melismatic organum: primitive polyphonic form with two melodies, in which the Gregorian melody is set in long notes and a second melody sings melismas (groups of short notes) above it .
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Discantus: primitive polyphonic form with two melodies in contrary motion, that is, when one melody goes higher the other goes lower and vice versa. It evolved into counterpoint.​
Ars antiqua (12th – 13th centuries)
Music began to measure rhythm using Greek metrical feet to synchronize the different voices of the polyphony. The centre was the Notre Dame School in Paris and its main composers were Leonin and Perotin.
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Conductus: polyphonic form built upon newly created melodies (not Gregorian) with a processional rhythm.
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Motet: polyphonic form written for 2 to 4 voices with different rhythms and texts.
Ars nova (14th century)
Polyphonic music became more complex in its rhythms and melodies. New more elaborate forms arose, reflecting the search of pleasure and purely sonorous effect of music. Mensural notation emerged, establishing precise values for each note. Main composers were Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut and Francesco Landini.
Perotin - Viderunt Omnes
(Ars Antiqua - Organum 2v.)
Adam de la Halle - "De ma dame vient"
(Ars Antiqua - Motet)
Machaut - Messe de Nostre Dame
(Ars Nova - Mass)
3. PROFANE VOCAL MUSIC
Profane vocal music also evolved from monophony to polyphony.
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Minstrels: professional musicians, just performers, who travelled from place to place entertaining people in castles and villages with staging shows, music and acrobatics. They were social outcasts.
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Troubadours (southern France), trouvères (northern France): cultured poets and composers who wrote songs in their vernacular languages about courtly love and chivalry. E.g. Martín Codax de Vigo (Cantigas de amigo), Alfonso X the Wise (Cantigas de Santa María).
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Goliards: wandering clerical students who wrote and performed songs in Latin about their lifestyle focused in food, drink and carnal pleasures, as well as critiques of the society and the church. E.g. Carmina Burana song book.
Profane polyphonic forms appeared in the Ars Nova (14th century).
Alfonso X - Cantiga 100 "Santa Maria Strela do dia" (troubadours)
Adam de la Halle - "Je muir, je muir d'amourette" (trouvères)
Carmina Burana: "O Fortuna"
(goliards)
4. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC
Instrumental music was forbidden in sacred music, but used to accompany profane songs and dances.
Dance
Dance was forbidden in church because it was associated with pagan rites. The sources to learn about medieval dance are limited: a few musical examples, artistic representations and literary references. Since the 12th century we find examples of dances, some of them sung and others purely instrumental.
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Estampie: generic name used for dances in manuscripts. It is monophonic and structured in several repeated phrases.
Instruments
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String: harp (1), lute (2), vielle (3), rebec (4), psaltery (5), tympanon (6), hurdy-gurdy (7).
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Wind: recorder (8), trumpet (9), dulzaina (10), cornett (11), bagpipes (12), portative organ (13).
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Percussion: tambourine (14), cymbals (15), castanets (16).
5. LISTENING EXAMPLES
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RELIGIOUS VOCAL MUSIC
"Puer natus es nobis"
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Rhythm: free rhythm.
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Texture: monophony.
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Timbre: male voices.
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Form: Gregorian chant hymn.
PROFANE VOCAL MUSIC
Alfonso X – Cantiga 100 "Santa Maria Strela do dia"
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Rhythm: duple time signature (2/4).
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Texture: monophony with heterophonic instrumental accompaniment.
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Timbre: male and female voices with instruments.
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Form: cantiga.